Lecture 7: Pronouns and Prepositions

[Hooligan]

Hello again students —

Here is the next lecture.

PART 1: PRONOUNS

We have already said a few words about pronouns, but in this lecture we will cover them more fully.

Subject Pronouns in Normal Position

We have seen that the subject pronouns can appear in either "normal" position (before a verb, as in tu isch aicì = you are here) or in "inverted" position, meaning attached to the end of a verb (as in ¿isch-tu aicì? = are you here?).

When in normal position, the Talossan subject pronouns have the forms that are listed below with their English equivalents:

• éu (= I) — this pronoun is very often seen without the accent mark, as eu, but always should be pronounced as two separate syllables, and not as the diphthong.
  
• tu (= you [informal])
  
• o (= he) [pronounced as if spelled u]
  
• a (= she)
  
• ça (= it, and also the neuter form of they)
  
• noi (= we)
  
• voi (= you-all ["you guys"] and also the formal you)
  
• os (= they [of unimportant gender or including at least one male]) [pronounced as if spelled usch]
  
• as (= they [all female])
  
• si (= the general pronoun [see below])
  

The pronoun si is used when you want to express a general, ubiquitous "anyone and everyone" feel. It would be used in place of the underlined words in the Talossan equivalents to sentences such as you never know what you're gonna get and they say all good things must pass.

Pronouns with Comparatives and Superlatives

Be careful to use the subject pronoun properly; a lot of people are careless with the distinction between subject pronouns and object pronouns in English, incorrectly using the object pronoun in comparative sentences such as he is taller than me. This sentence should properly be he is taller than I, and you should be sure (in both Talossan and English, frankly) to use the subject pronoun in cases like these: o isch pü inalt qe éu (= he is more tall than I).

This example sentence provides us with as good a time as any to introduce the way that Talossan handles comparatives. In English, an adjective can be declined (modified) to become a comparative: that is, green can become greener. This is not generally done in Talossan; instead, you simply must use the word pü (= more) in front of the adjective.

This should not seem all that strange, though; notice that in English, there is rarely a declension for an adjective to indicate its lessening — so although greener means more green, if you need to say less green, then, well, you need to say less green — there is no single word for that.

And in Talossan, this is also what you must do, using the word míus (= less). So one way to say he is not as tall as I would be o isch míus inalt qe éu.

Notice that both pü and míus are words that are usually subject to consonant mutation, becoming phü and mhíus after words that end in vowels.

There are two adjectives in Talossan, however, that do have a single-word way to indicate more and less of them. These two adjectives are ben (and its feminine form buna), which means good, and mal, which means bad. In other words, while there is no single Talossan word for greener, there is a single word for both better and worse. These words are miglhor (= better) and pior (= worse). Just as with pü and míus, both miglhor and pior are words that are often seen in mutated forms after vowels: mhiglhor and phior.

To indicate better, both pü ben (literally = more good) and miglhor are proper. This is different than in English, where you must say better and to say more good is improper.

Here it should be noted that pü mighlor and míus pior are improper in Talossan in the same way that more better and less worse are improper in English.

Notice that although there are single-word Talossan equivalents for better and worse, there are not Talossan equivalents for best and worst. This leads us to how these concepts (best, worst, and greenest) are expressed.

The superlative is expressed simply by creating a comparative, and putting a definite article in front of it. So while pü virt would mean greener, el pü virt means greenest. Yes, it looks like it would be translated to English as the more green, but the fact is that while pü means more, el pü means most.

The special comparative words miglhor and pior are also made into best and worst in the same way, by simply preceding them with a definite article.

This use of the definite article can sometimes lead to ambiguity: does el viind pü deliçal mean the more delicious meat or the most delicious meat? Usually, context is clear as to whether the noun and adjective both "use" the article, but do not be afraid to repeat the article to emphasize the superlative: el viind el pü deliçal.

Be sure to use the proper definite article for the gender of the noun in question. That is: el porc el pü negreu (= the blackest pig), and la valeina la phü neagra (= the blackest whale).

Subject Pronouns in Inverted Position

We have seen examples of subject pronouns following the verb. Remember that this is only done in two cases: when the sentence is a question, or when the sentence is a command. In those cases, the subject pronoun is positioned after the verb, and attached to it, using the following rules:

• The subject pronoun éu gets attached to the back of the verb by removing the -éu that ends the verb form and replacing it with 'éu. This is only done if the verb is "regular", though: if the verb is "irregular" (see below), the pronoun is attached to the end of the verb as -éu;
  
• The subject pronoun tu gets attached to the back of the verb as 't (you've seen this; haven't you?). Again, this is only if the verb is "regular" — if it is "irregular" (see below), the pronoun is simply attached to the end of the verb as -tu
  
• The subject pronoun o (= he) gets attached to the back of the verb as -t-o, except if the verb is "irregular" (see below), when it is attached to the end of the verb as -o
  
• The subject pronoun a (= she) gets attached to the back of the verb as -t-a (except if the verb is "irregular"; see below), when it is attached to the end of the verb as -a
  
• All other subject pronouns are always simply attached to the back of the verb form with a hyphen. That is, voi (= we) is attached to the end of the verb as -voi.

Now, what do I mean by "regular" and "irregular" up above? Well, I'll tell you. We have not discussed verb conjugation in detail yet, but a quick example should suffice to show the difference between a regular verb and an irregular verb. The verb vivarh (= to live) takes the "regular" endings of -éu and -ás to indicate I live and you live, respectively. That is vivéu (= I live) and vivás (= you live). Therefore, if these pronouns were used in "inversion" with this verb, you would get viv'éu (literally = live I) and vivás't (literally = live you).

However, the verb estarh (= to be) conjugates irregularly for these two present tense forms. That is, instead of estéu and estás (both of which are improper Talossan), the forms are éu sint (= I am) and tu isch (= you are). So for these two forms, the pronouns would be used in "inversion" as sint-éu (literally = am I) and isch-tu (literally = are you).

Notice, however, that even an irregular verb conjugation can take the regular form of the inverted subject pronoun, if the irregular form ends with the same sound (whether stressed or not) as the regular conjuation would. For example, the future tense of estarh is irregular in conjugation, so that o serà (= he will be). Since this form (serà) ends the same way the regular conjugation would (it would be estarha), then the inverted form is serà-t-o, and not serà-o.

Object Pronouns in Normal Position

Object pronouns can also appear in "normal" position (before a verb) and in "inverted" position (attached to the end of a verb using a hyphen).

Recall that the "normal" form of a Talossan transitive verb clause is "(subject) (object) (verb)", as in éu en améu (= I love it, which literally translates to English as I it love). Here are the forms of the Talossan object pronouns when they appear in this "normal" position.

• me (= me)
  
• te (= you [informal])
  
• lo (= him) [note that this is pronounced as if spelled lu]
  
• la (= her)
  
• en (= it)
  
• noi (= us)
  
• voi (= you-all, or you [formal])
  
• lor (= them)
  
• se (the objective case of si, which is used as the reflexive object; see below)
  

It is important to note that the forms me, te, lo, la, and se all elide, losing their second letter and being "scrunched up against" the verb with an apostrophe if that verb begins with a vowel. For example, a m'ama (= she loves me) is proper, while a me ama would only be used if you wished to express emphasis, as in she loves me (and not someone else).

The reflexive object pronoun se is used for all cases where the subject and the object are the same. So in this sense is it equivalent to any of myself, yourself, herself, yourselves, themselves, itself, etc. For example, os se haßent (= they hate themselves) and noi s'ament (= we love ourselves). Notice that the use of se (the objective case of the general subject pronoun si, which appears in sentiments such as "one never knows") for this purpose gives Talossan reflexive statements rather unique semantics: that is, se vidéu (= I see myself) is literally "I see one".

Object Pronouns in Inverted Position

Object pronouns can be used in "inversion", which means they are moved (unchanged in all cases) behind the verb and attached to it using a hyphen. This can only be done in two cases, which are if the verb form is an infinitive form or an imperative (command) form.

For example, you can say haßéu à vidarh-en (= I hate to see it), since vidarh is in the infinitive form. Notice that you would not construct this phrase as en haßéu à vidarh, since then the meaning would be the rather nonsensical "I hate it to see".

An example of an object pronoun appearing in inversion in an imperative (command) statement would be ¡frapetz-me! (= hit me!). Recall that subject pronouns can also appear in inversion in commands; since commands are always directed to either the "you" or the "you all" subject, this typically poses no problem. However, when both a subject and an object pronoun are used in a command, only the subject pronoun can appear in "inversion". That is, both ¡me frapetz-tu! and ¡tu me frapetz! (both = hit me!) are proper, and ¡tu frapetz-me! is not.

Object Pronouns in Prepositional Phrases

When discussing the now mostly-defunct system of consonant mutation that existed in early Talossan, we mentioned that object pronouns used in prepositional phrases often have forms that seem to be relics of this system. That is, although the "normal position" object pronoun for you is te, the form of this pronoun in the prepositional phrase for you is per dtu (the fortitive mutation [eclipsis] of tu) and in the prepositional phrase to you is à thu (the lenitive mutation of tu).

This system of consonant mutation seems to have influenced the separation of the two cases of Talossan pronouns used after prepositions, in such a way that the use of the cases divided according to the ending of the preposition that introduces the pronoun. Prepositions that end with a vowel tend to use one of the two cases of pronouns, and prepositions that end with a consonant tend to use the second of the two cases of pronouns.

Prepositions could thus be said to "cause lenition" or "cause fortition" in pronouns. In this sense, you can view Talossan's prepositions as "stronger" than its pronouns. Where usually in Talossan, a word will "give up" its weak ending (such as eliding off its final -a) in deference to the next word, in this case, the preposition "forces its will" onto the pronoun, which then has the obligation of changing its beginning to assist in the flow of speech.

Here are the forms of the pronouns when used after a preposition.

Normal Position	After a Consonant	After a Vowel
me (= me)	me	mhe
te (= you)

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dtu

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thu

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[tr][td]

lo (= him)

[/td][td]

o

[/td][td]

lo

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[tr][td]

la (= her)

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eia

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eia

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[tr][td]

en (= it)

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ça

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ça

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[tr][td]

noi (= us)

[/td][td]

noi or üns [see below]

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nhoi or üns [see below]

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[tr][td]

voi (= you-all)

[/td][td]

voi

[/td][td]

vhoi

[/td][/tr]
[tr][td]

lor (= them)

[/td][td]

lor

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lhor

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[tr][td]

se (= general)

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so [see below]

[/td][td]

so [see below]

[/td][/tr][/table][/center]
When using the reflexive object after a preposition, so is always proper, but it is also acceptable for first- and second-person subjects to use the same form as would be used for the actual subject. For example, o en zoneva à so (= he gave it to himself) and éu en zoneveu à mhe (= I gave it to myself); note the use of mhe (which could also have been so).

The pronoun üns is seen used for both nhoi and noi, and is in fact the usual choice after da (forming dad üns = "to us").

Historical note: In earlier Talossan, the pronoun üns was used for all prepositions ending in a consonant (that is, rather than noi) and was also for da, but in modern Talossan is it accepted after any preposition. The form üns is a direct borrow from German, and (along with ár, an alternative to noastra = "our") may be indicative of a challenge, during the language's mythical migration, to the developed cognitive and linguistic "sameness" of the first- and third-person plural senses in Talossan. Such a challenge, by this theory, manifested itself through a tendency to to "re-strengthen" the independence of the first-person plural by importing words from languages in which this lost distinction was more semantically retained.

One other little oddity here is that the word casa (= house) can be used as a preposition, meaning "at the house of", and in this construction, casa lui, an affectation from French, can be seen in place of casa lo ("at his house").

Other Pronouns

We have already used the demonstrative pronoun acest (= this or that) and its feminine form aceasta. These both share the plural form acestilor (which is pronounced irregularly, as if spelled acésceler).

There are about a dozen other demonstrative, interrogative, relative, and indefinite pronouns, such as neviens (= nobody), niþil (= nothing), and ingenc’hosa (= anything) that you should be aware of.

Talossan also has a set of possessive pronouns, each of which "comes with" a required definite article. For example, el méu (= mine). We will leave the discussion of these pronouns to a later lecture when we cover genitive indication and the other ways to indicate possession of one noun by another.

Concerning the Informal "You" and the Formal "You"

Talossan is like most other Romance languages in having two different pronouns for the English you — one that is called the "informal you", and the other that is called the "formal you". The idea behind this is that one would use the "formal you" when addressing a superior, either an elder or someone in a position of authority, and one would use the "informal you" when addressing anyone else — someone equal or subordinate to you in a social or family situation.

This is a feature that exists in archaic English: the pronouns thou and thee were the subject and object pronouns for informal use, and ye and you were the subject and object pronouns for formal use. In modern English, of course, the distinction has disappeared, and you is used for all purposes and to address anyone.

While Talossan does retain this Romance feature, in truth the "formal you" is very very rarely used, and you should almost invariably stick to using the "informal you" forms. Except perhaps when addressing the King or something, but even he wouldn't mind being called tu instead of voi. At least I don't think he would, but if he beheads you for it, you didn't hear that from me.

Another thing to notice is that the "formal you" forms are also used for the "you-all" sense. So that voi estetz ben means you (formal) are good while voi estetz bens means you-all are good and the only way to tell them apart is the fact that the adjective here — ben (= good) — is singular in one of the sentences and plural in the other. (Note that English retains a remnant of this same double-use of the formal form in the so-called "Royal We"; the way a reigning monarch refers to himself or herself as "We", and to his or her possessions as "Our", etc.)

[Yes, adjectives get pluralized just like nouns; we'll discuss this more in the next lecture.][/blockquote]PART 2: PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions are used in Talossan in the same way they are used in English, and in the main not much needs to be said about them.

Talossan has a great many prepositions, and it would be a chore to list them all here. Some of the most common ones are à (= at, or to, or towards), da (= of, or from), cün (= with), sür (= on), per (= for), come (= like, or as), osprei (= after), avant (= before), and par (= by). Obviously, there are many more -- think of any English preposition, such as above, below, beside, inside, etc., and there is a Talossan preposition for it.

In English, it is not unusual for a verb that sometimes takes a preposition also to be able to be used without it, as seen in the two English statements he faces the wall and he faces toward the wall, which have identical or near-identical meaning. This is not done in Talossan. To fail to use a preposition with Talossan verb that requires one would be improper, similar to the way such an omission is improper in the English phrase I cling you (which should properly be I cling to you). For example, o faça àl mür (= he faces toward the wall) is proper, while o faça el mür (= literally, he faces the wall) is improper.

The reverse is also true. It is improper to employ a preposition with a verb that does not use this way of relating to its noun. For example, avititscharh (= to cling to) is one such verb in Talossan, and o avititscha sieu matra (= he clings to his mother) is proper Talossan, where the equivalent English phrase would require that the preposition to be made explicit. To include the preposition in Talossan, as in o avititscha à sieu matra would be improper, similar to the way such an inclusion is improper in the English phrase he loves to his mother.

Just as in English, certain verbs "work" with certain prepositions. For example, you wouldn't use the preposition from with to listen — although I listen to you makes sense, I listen from you makes no sense at all. In the main, most Talossan verbs "work" with the same prepositions as in English. However, this is not always the case. Sometimes a verb that would take one preposition in English will take a different one in Talossan. (This usually indicates that the verbs aren't 100% identical in meaning, no matter what the Översteir might say.) For example, where in English you would say he seeks for it, Talossan would say o quaira à ça (literally = he seeks to or toward it).

Notice that in English, some prepositions have idiomatic uses. For example, the preposition "on" in the phrases "the dinner burned on me" and "the car stalled on her" does not have its normal semantic meaning (surmounting, atop). Instead, in these phrases, it means something like, "which was a bad thing for". Talossan uses the preposition pa ("upon") in a similar idiom. For example, l'avendaziun breneva pa mhe ("the dinner burned on me") and l'auteu caßeva pad eia ("the car stalled on her"). However, this idiomatic use of pa has a (slightly) different use from English "on", in that with pa, whether the event was good or bad for the "third party" is undefined (and therefore might be expressed in English using the preposition "for" instead). For example, in the phrase o cumplicheva va figlha sè vida pa mhe ("he complicated my daughter's life on/for me"), it is unclear whether the complication was a good or bad thing for the speaker, only that it involved or affected the speaker in some way.

Historical note: In such constructions in earlier Talossan, the preposition pa introduced the objective case pronouns (rather than the forms seen after other prepositions), with the exception that ça was used rather than en. That is, l'avendaziun breneva pa me and l'auteu caßeva pa la were proper for the examples given above. This unique construction is now deprecated and pa is used with the prepositional case (mhe, thu, etc.).

Prepositional Contractions, Elisions, and Mutations

The prepositions à and da contract with the definite article, becoming àl (= to the), del and dal (both = of the, with del used for masculine nouns, and dal for feminine nouns).

The prepositions à, da, per, come, intra (= between), and contra (= against) contract with the indefinite article, becoming à'iens (= to a/an), d'iens (= from a/an), pr'iens (= for a/an), com'iens (= like/as a/an), intr'iens (= between a/an), and contr'iens (= against a/an). When the noun in question is feminine in gender, of course, the words become à'iensa, d'iensa, etc., and when the noun is plural, à'iensas, d'iensas, and so forth.

The preposition à becomes àð (or, as is often seen, àd) when preceding any word that begins with a vowel (other than the article el, of course, when you get àl). For example, àd ingen temp (= at any time) is proper, while à ingen temp is improper.

Rather than àð acest, however (and àð aceasta and àð acestilor), you may see the forms à'cest (and à'ceasta and à'cestilor).

The preposition da elides (becoming d’) with the following word, or alternatively becomes dad, when preceding any word that begins with a vowel (except the definite article el, of course, when you get del or dal). The prepositional phrase dad üns (= of us, ours) is the only case where the dad construct is more commonly used than d’.

Note that the final d in dad (and ad) is pronounced as a ð according to the pronunciation rules, since it is a letter d that is between two vowel sounds.

The two forms àð and dad can be thought of very much like the English word an. Although an is actually the older, original form of the indefinite article in English, and a developed simply out of people's laziness, most people think of a as needing to become an before vowels, rather than what actually happened, which is that an became a before consonants. In Talossan, think of à and da becoming ad and dad before vowels.

Notice, though, that not every vowel gets the English an treatment. For example, although the words wonder and unicorn obviously start with vowel sounds, neither one of them is typically (anymore) seen with an — rather, people say a wonder and a unicorn. This same thing is true of Talossan, and so you do not need (although it is not improper) to use ad or dad if the next word begins with a vowel combination that starts with the letter i or u (which means that these words may also start with j or w).

Let's see; what else? Oh, the prepositional phrase after her elides, becoming ospr'eia. That pretty much covers it, I think.

As I've said, if anyone reads these lectures and has any questions they want to ask about them, I would answer those questions.

If there are assignments for this lecture, I will post them in the next few days.